The fruit of a climbing cactus
Pitahaya, also called pitaya or dragon fruit, comprises the fruits of several climbing cactus species and their cultivars and hybrids. Selenicereus undatus, S. monacanthus and S. megalanthus are important cultivated species. The plants are trained on supports, and their green, fleshy stems serve as photosynthetic and water-storage organs. This growth form combines cactus biology with the demands of perennial fruit production. [Nobel 2006, Nobel 2006 p. 469–470, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 345–346, Abirami et al. 2021 p. 1–2][Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012, Nobel 2006 p. 469–470, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 345–346, Abirami et al. 2021 p. 1–2][Abirami et al. 2021, Nobel 2006 p. 469–470, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 345–346, Abirami et al. 2021 p. 1–2]
A segmented stem can produce adventitious roots. Roots emerging above ground help attach the plant to a support. A segment rooted in the substrate also gains its own route for water uptake. The ability to form roots supports vegetative propagation and the preservation of a selected cultivar’s traits. [Nobel 2006, Nobel 2006 p. 469–470, Graham and Nobel 2005 p. 13–14][Graham and Nobel 2005, Nobel 2006 p. 469–470, Graham and Nobel 2005 p. 13–14]
Pitahaya sp. Plant on a support
Fleshy stems grow along a support. Adventitious roots are shown on their surface. Buds, a flower and a fruit appear on the same plant as illustrative developmental stages. [Crane and Balerdi 2006] [Korotkova et al. 2017]
Illustrative image generated with AI and supplied by the site author. The label Pitahaya sp. refers to the shared appearance of this group of plants. Proportions and details are schematic.
Enlarge plate ↗Names in the atlas and literature
The atlas uses names accepted by Plants of the World Online. Selenicereus undatus includes plants formerly described as Hylocereus undatus. Hylocereus monacanthus and H. polyrhizus are synonyms of Selenicereus monacanthus. Selenicereus megalanthus also appears in publications as Hylocereus megalanthus. Historical identifications are retained alongside experimental accounts so that the original study can be located. [2-WWW][2-WWW][2-WWW]
A commercial name may primarily describe fruit colour. An experiment in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands compared four genotypes assigned to three species. The authors combined peel and pulp colour with stem traits and DNA markers. Cultivar name and material provenance help identify a plant because hybridization changes combinations of fruit and stem characters. [Abirami et al. 2021, p. 1–2, 8–10]
Species and fruits
Typical white-fleshed Selenicereus undatus dragon fruit has red peel and white pulp containing numerous black seeds. The S. monacanthus material described by Cohen and Tel-Zur had red peel and purple pulp. Yellow dragon fruit, S. megalanthus, had pale pulp and a spiny fruit surface. These are traits of the material presented in those studies and help compare major cultivated groups. [Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 346, Abirami et al. 2021 p. 2–4, Zaman et al. 2025 p. 2][Abirami et al. 2021, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 346, Abirami et al. 2021 p. 2–4, Zaman et al. 2025 p. 2][Zaman et al. 2025, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 346, Abirami et al. 2021 p. 2–4, Zaman et al. 2025 p. 2]
A fruit is both a food product and the outcome of pollination, seed development and pulp ripening. Cultivar studies compare its mass, pulp proportion, colour and chemical composition. Pollen compatibility, simultaneous flowering of partners and temperature during bud development also matter to growers. These relationships connect the physiology of an individual flower with crop management. [Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 346–351, Abirami et al. 2021 p. 2–8, Chu and Chang 2020 p. 1–6][Abirami et al. 2021, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 346–351, Abirami et al. 2021 p. 2–8, Chu and Chang 2020 p. 1–6][Chu and Chang 2020, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 346–351, Abirami et al. 2021 p. 2–8, Chu and Chang 2020 p. 1–6]
Pitahaya sp. Fruit
The fruit is shown externally, with a pink-red surface and elongated green scales. Skin and flesh colour and fruit shape vary among species and cultivars. [Crane and Balerdi 2006] [Korotkova et al. 2017]
Illustrative image generated with AI and supplied by the site author. The label Pitahaya sp. refers to the shared appearance of this group of plants. Proportions and details are schematic.
Enlarge plate ↗Light, temperature and water
In Selenicereus undatus, water conservation relies on CAM and succulent stem tissues. Nocturnal carbon dioxide fixation limits the losses accompanying gas exchange. In Nobel’s 2006 experiment, reserves in the water-storage parenchyma sustained the hydration of the outer photosynthetic tissue during six weeks of drought. Nocturnal CO₂ uptake gradually declined as drought continued. Sustained growth and fruiting therefore require a different water balance from the maintenance of a living stem. [Nobel 2006, Nobel 2006 p. 469–473, Wang et al. 2019 p. 2–8][Wang et al. 2019, Nobel 2006 p. 469–473, Wang et al. 2019 p. 2–8]
Nobel and de la Barrera studied day and night temperatures over many weeks. The greatest daily CO₂ uptake occurred at 30/20°C. At sustained 40/30°C, necrosis appeared after six weeks and covered almost the entire stem after nineteen weeks. The result concerns prolonged heat exposure in chambers. In cultivation, it supports monitoring stem temperature and the duration of greenhouse heating. [Nobel and De la Barrera 2002, p. 225–230]
Flower buds require suitable conditions
Photoperiod, the duration of the light portion of the day, influences whether a new stem or a flower develops. In 2012, Jiang and colleagues shortened the day to eight hours for red dragon fruit in Taiwan. Floral bud formation ceased and new stem growth increased. Lighting during the middle of the night enabled flowering outside the main season. The material was described as Hylocereus sp., a probable hybrid of untraced genetic origin. [Jiang et al. 2012, p. 1063–1067]
Temperature acts together with day length. Chu and Chang studied two- and three-year-old plants of the white-fleshed cultivar ‘VN White’ under a fourteen-hour day. At 32/22°C, floral buds emerged after three to four weeks. At 29/19°C, emergence required nine weeks in the second experiment. These values describe that cultivar and procedure. In Poland, planning flowering should combine supplementary lighting with temperature measurements, stem age and plant condition. [Chu and Chang 2020, p. 1–6]
Pitahaya sp. Flower and bud
The open flower shows the perianth, numerous stamens and the stigma. A closed bud appears beside it. The illustration depicts the general appearance of a cultivated pitahaya flower. [Crane and Balerdi 2006] [Korotkova et al. 2017]
Illustrative image generated with AI and supplied by the site author. The label Pitahaya sp. refers to the shared appearance of this group of plants. Proportions and details are schematic.
Enlarge plate ↗Pollination and pollen compatibility
Dragon fruit flowers open at night, and in some material they remain accessible in the morning. In a cultivated Selenicereus undatus population in the Tehuacán Valley, nocturnal visitors contributed to effective pollination. Pollen was found on bats, while honeybees visited flowers during the day. The authors obtained fruits after both self- and cross-pollination. They detected no nectar secretion in the flowers studied and considered pollen feeding as a reason for bat visits. [Valiente-Banuet et al. 2007, pp. 3–7]
Compatibility depends on genotype. Li and colleagues examined the self-incompatible Selenicereus monacanthus cultivar ‘Hongshuijing’. Its own pollen germinated on the stigma, but the pollen tubes stopped approximately halfway along the style. Pollen from ‘Dahong’ progressed further to the ovary. Fruit production therefore calls for material with a known breeding system and a partner providing compatible pollen during flowering. [Li et al. 2022, Li et al. 2022 p. 4–8, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 346][Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012, Li et al. 2022 p. 4–8, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 346]
Container cultivation in Poland
In Poland, dragon fruit needs a position protected from frost. A strong support holds the heavy stems, and a freely draining substrate allows water to escape. A healthy stem segment is rooted after the cut has dried and healed. Flowering and fruit growth require regular water supply. UF/IFAS recommendations concern Florida, so the timing of operations must be adapted to greenhouse or indoor conditions. [Crane and Balerdi 2006, sections Climate, Propagation, Trellis, Soils i Irrigation]
The biology of the stem provides a basis for assessing a growing position. Water reserves, root activity, nocturnal CO₂ uptake and bud formation depend on different conditions. Experimental drought durations require context when designing irrigation for a fruiting plant. Likewise, a temperature favouring flower emergence describes a specific developmental stage. Records of temperature, irrigation, new growth and flowering help relate these processes to the grower’s own setting. [Nobel 2006, scope and conditions of the experiments in the cited papers][Wang et al. 2019, scope and conditions of the experiments in the cited papers][Nobel and De la Barrera 2002, scope and conditions of the experiments in the cited papers][Chu and Chang 2020, scope and conditions of the experiments in the cited papers]
Economic importance
Dragon fruit combines fresh-fruit production with breeding for differences in colour, pollination system and yield. In research, the economic importance of self-incompatibility follows from the need to transfer pollen and maintain compatible partners. Work on flowering control addresses the seasonality of supply. In this crop, physiology directly affects labour organization and harvest timing. [Jiang et al. 2012, Jiang et al. 2012 p. 1063–1067, Chu and Chang 2020 p. 1–6, Li et al. 2022 p. 1–4, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 345–346][Chu and Chang 2020, Jiang et al. 2012 p. 1063–1067, Chu and Chang 2020 p. 1–6, Li et al. 2022 p. 1–4, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 345–346][Li et al. 2022, Jiang et al. 2012 p. 1063–1067, Chu and Chang 2020 p. 1–6, Li et al. 2022 p. 1–4, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 345–346][Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012, Jiang et al. 2012 p. 1063–1067, Chu and Chang 2020 p. 1–6, Li et al. 2022 p. 1–4, Cohen and Tel-Zur 2012 p. 345–346]
A second research area concerns fruit composition and pigments. Genotype comparisons examine peel and pulp separately, while genomics helps identify candidate genes associated with pigmentation. Laboratory results describe sample properties and possible directions for selection. Practical applications require assessment of product stability, trait reproducibility and process efficiency. These questions are developed in the separate article on dragon fruit pigments and genomics. [Abirami et al. 2021, Abirami et al. 2021 p. 2–8, Pucker i Brockington 2022 p. 1–3, Zaman et al. 2025 p. 14–18][Pucker and Brockington 2022, Abirami et al. 2021 p. 2–8, Pucker i Brockington 2022 p. 1–3, Zaman et al. 2025 p. 14–18][Zaman et al. 2025, Abirami et al. 2021 p. 2–8, Pucker i Brockington 2022 p. 1–3, Zaman et al. 2025 p. 14–18]
Self-compatibility and effective pollen transfer
A self-compatible flower may produce a small fruit when little viable pollen reaches its stigma. Dag and Mizrahi compared four pollination methods in fourteen Selenicereus megalanthus clones in Israel. The experiment took place in autumn 2003 in a three-year-old plantation under netting providing 60% shade. A total of 1300 flowers were allocated to the treatments. Hand self-pollination and hand cross-pollination produced similar results. Self-compatibility of this material therefore coexisted with a benefit from active pollen transfer. [Dag and Mizrahi 2005, p. 618–620, tabela I]
In Jadhav and colleagues’ 2023–2024 experiment, the white-fleshed Selenicereus undatus cultivar ‘NDFW-1’ set fruit after self-pollination, but hand cross-pollination produced heavier fruit. The red-fleshed ‘NDFR-1’ was described as a self-incompatible clone with an uncertain species identification. The plants grew under subtropical conditions in Baramati, India. The practical implication concerns testing compatibility of a particular cultivar and its pollen partner. Species identification, flesh colour and cultivar identity each retain a distinct meaning. [Jadhav et al. 2025, p. 3–4, 9, 12–13]
The pollination window and orchard weather
Stigmas and pollen remain active for a period around flower opening. Jadhav and colleagues examined their activity at successive time points and performed controlled pollinations of ‘NDFW-1’. Under their conditions, the favourable window extended from four hours before flower opening to twelve hours afterwards. This finding is tied to the cultivar, climate and pollen-transfer method tested. In a greenhouse, timing is related to actual flower development, temperature and humidity, together with local observations. [Jadhav et al. 2025, p. 5–11, 13–14]
Rainfall preceding the first flowering cycle coincided with earlier bud appearance in India. The authors related weather patterns to observations from 2023–2024 and additional data from 2025. They proposed microclimate management as a possible application of these relationships. The temporal association between rainfall and bud initiation complements earlier experiments on photoperiod and temperature. Each factor acts on plants at a particular developmental state. [Jadhav et al. 2025, Jadhav i wsp. p. 2–3, 8–9, 12; Jiang i wsp. 2012; Chu i Chang 2020][Jiang et al. 2012, Jadhav i wsp. p. 2–3, 8–9, 12; Jiang i wsp. 2012; Chu i Chang 2020][Chu and Chang 2020, Jadhav i wsp. p. 2–3, 8–9, 12; Jiang i wsp. 2012; Chu i Chang 2020]
From orchard establishment to harvest
Trindade and colleagues’ review discusses the development of pitahaya cultivation on the Iberian Peninsula. The authors connect site selection with protection from frost, radiation and overheating, and with soil drainage. In Mediterranean conditions, covers and nets alter both light availability and temperature. For cultivation in Poland, the useful principle is the relationship between site design and plant physiology. Calendars and tolerance limits need to be related to the particular plant material and local conditions. [Trindade et al. 2023, p. 6–10, rozdział 5]
Yellow pitahaya, Selenicereus megalanthus, has particular requirements for maturity assessment and fruit handling. Valero and colleagues’ review distinguishes growth on the plant, ripening and postharvest storage. Water loss, respiration and mechanical damage affect quality retention. Harvest timing therefore involves colour development, peel condition and the anticipated transport period. Data for red and yellow pitahayas retain their own species and cultivar scope. [Valero et al. 2025, p. 5–10, rozdziały 3–7]
Parenchyma-chlorenchyma water movement during drought for the hemiepiphytic cactus Hylocereus undatus
Nobel P. S., Parenchyma-chlorenchyma water movement during drought for the hemiepiphytic cactus Hylocereus undatus, Annals of Botany, 2006, 97(3):469-474, doi: 10.1093/aob/mcj054
Differences in wall compliance and hydration changes in water-storage parenchyma and chlorenchyma during six weeks of drought.
Daily changes in stem thickness and related gas exchange patterns for the hemiepiphytic cactus Hylocereus undatus
Graham E. A., Nobel P. S., Daily changes in stem thickness and related gas exchange patterns for the hemiepiphytic cactus Hylocereus undatus, International Journal of Plant Sciences, 2005, 166(1):13-20, doi: 10.1086/425669
Daily changes in stem thickness compared with transpiration, CO₂ uptake and abscisic-acid experiments.
The highly drought-tolerant pitaya (Hylocereus undatus) is a non-facultative CAM plant under both well-watered and drought conditions
Wang L., Zhang X., Ma Y., Qing Y., Wang H., Huang X., The highly drought-tolerant pitaya (Hylocereus undatus) is a non-facultative CAM plant under both well-watered and drought conditions, Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 2019, 94(5):643-652, doi: 10.1080/14620316.2019.1595747
Stomatal, metabolite and enzyme rhythms in irrigated and drought-treated dragon fruit.
High temperatures and net CO2 uptake, growth, and stem damage for the hemiepiphytic cactus Hylocereus undatus
Nobel P. S., De la Barrera E., High temperatures and net CO2 uptake, growth, and stem damage for the hemiepiphytic cactus Hylocereus undatus, Biotropica, 2002, 34(2):225-231, doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2002.tb00533.x
Prolonged heat exposure, daily gas exchange, growth and stem necrosis in Selenicereus undatus.
The photoperiod-regulated bud formation of red pitaya (Hylocereus sp.)
Jiang Y. L., Liao Y. Y., Lin T. S., Lee C. L., Yen C. R., Yang W. J., The photoperiod-regulated bud formation of red pitaya (Hylocereus sp.), HortScience, 2012, 47(8):1063-1067, doi: 10.21273/hortsci.47.8.1063
Photoperiod and night-break lighting in red dragon fruit of untraced hybrid origin.
Regulation of floral bud development and emergence by ambient temperature under a long-day photoperiod in white-fleshed pitaya (Hylocereus undatus)
Chu Y. C., Chang J. C., Regulation of floral bud development and emergence by ambient temperature under a long-day photoperiod in white-fleshed pitaya (Hylocereus undatus), Scientia Horticulturae, 2020, 271:109479, doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2020.109479
Temperature and floral bud emergence in the white-fleshed cultivar ‘VN White’ under a fourteen-hour day.
Pollination biology of the hemiepiphytic cactus Hylocereus undatus in the Tehuacán Valley, Mexico
Valiente-Banuet A., Santos Gally R., Arizmendi M. C., Casas A., Pollination biology of the hemiepiphytic cactus Hylocereus undatus in the Tehuacán Valley, Mexico, Journal of Arid Environments, 2007, 68(1):1-8, doi: 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.04.001
Controlled pollination and nocturnal and diurnal flower visitors in a cultivated Tehuacán Valley population.
Global transcriptome dissection of pollen-pistil interactions induced self-incompatibility in dragon fruit (Selenicereus spp.)
Li J. C., Wang Y., Dai H. F., Sun Q., Global transcriptome dissection of pollen-pistil interactions induced self-incompatibility in dragon fruit (Selenicereus spp.), PeerJ, 2022, 10:e14165, doi: 10.7717/peerj.14165
Pollen tubes and candidate genes associated with self-incompatibility in ‘Hongshuijing’.
Morphological changes and self-incompatibility breakdown associated with autopolyploidization in Hylocereus species (Cactaceae)
Cohen H., Tel-Zur N., Morphological changes and self-incompatibility breakdown associated with autopolyploidization in Hylocereus species (Cactaceae), Euphytica, 2012, 184(3):345-354, doi: 10.1007/s10681-011-0536-5
Chromosome doubling, pollen compatibility and fruit and seed traits in lines of two dragon fruit species.
Distinguishing three Dragon fruit (Hylocereus spp.) species grown in Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India using morphological, biochemical and molecular traits
Abirami K., Swain S., Baskaran V., Venkatesan K., Sakthivel K., Bommayasamy N., Distinguishing three Dragon fruit (Hylocereus spp.) species grown in Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India using morphological, biochemical and molecular traits, Scientific Reports, 2021, 11(1):2894, doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-81682-x
Comparison of morphology, fruit composition and DNA markers in four dragon fruit genotypes.
The evidence for anthocyanins in the betalain-pigmented genus Hylocereus is weak
Pucker B., Brockington S. F., The evidence for anthocyanins in the betalain-pigmented genus Hylocereus is weak, BMC Genomics, 2022, 23(1):739, doi: 10.1186/s12864-022-08947-1
Reanalysis of chemical and transcriptomic evidence concerning anthocyanins in dragon fruit.
Chromosome-level genome assembly of the autotetraploid yellow pitaya provides novel insights into evolution of trait patterning in pitaya species with different ploidy
Zaman Q. U., Raza A., Hui L., Nazir M. F., Garg V., Ikram M., Wang G., Lv W., Khan D., Khokhar A. A., You Z., Chitikineni A., Usman B., Jianpeng C., Yang X., Zuo S., Liu P., Kumar S., Guo M., Zhu Z. X., Dwivedi G., Qin Y. H., Varshney R. K., Wang H. F., Chromosome-level genome assembly of the autotetraploid yellow pitaya provides novel insights into evolution of trait patterning in pitaya species with different ploidy, Genome Biology, 2025, 26(1):234, doi: 10.1186/s13059-025-03695-3
Selenicereus megalanthus genome assembly and comparison of chromatin and betalain-pathway candidates.
Plants of the World Online — Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
Accepted names, synonyms and distribution. A citation beside a taxon leads to its record.
Accessed 2026-10-08.
Pitaya Growing in the Florida Home Landscape
Crane J. H., Balerdi C. F., Pitaya Growing in the Florida Home Landscape, EDIS, 2006, 2006(21), doi: 10.32473/edis-hs303-2005
The guide presents the biology of climbing fruit cacti and their cultivation in Florida. It covers supports, pollination and management of various species and varieties.
Effect of pollination method on fruit set and fruit characteristics in the vine cactus Selenicereus megalanthus ("yellow pitaya")
Dag A., Mizrahi Y., Effect of pollination method on fruit set and fruit characteristics in the vine cactus Selenicereus megalanthus ("yellow pitaya"), Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 2005, 80(5):618-622, doi: 10.1080/14620316.2005.11511987
Self-compatibility and the effectiveness of four pollination methods in fourteen yellow pitahaya clones.
Yellow Pitahaya (Selenicereus megalanthus Haw.): The Less Known of the Pitahayas
Valero D., Erazo-Lara A., García-Pastor M. E., Padilla-González P. A., Agulló V., El-Hiali F. B., Serrano M., Yellow Pitahaya (Selenicereus megalanthus Haw.): The Less Known of the Pitahayas, Foods, 2025, 14(2):202, doi: 10.3390/foods14020202
Review of yellow pitahaya fruit biology, quality and storage.
Floral and pollination biology of dragon fruit reveals strategies for enhancing productivity through pollination management and reproductive window extension
Jadhav P., Dhumal S. S., Boraiah K. M., Kate P., Kakade V. D., Basavaraj P. S., Harisha C. B., Halli H. M., Kshirsagar D. B., Patil B. T., Pal K. K., Ranpise S. A., Reddy K. S., Rane J., Pathak H., Floral and pollination biology of dragon fruit reveals strategies for enhancing productivity through pollination management and reproductive window extension, Scientific Reports, 2025, 15(1):37296, doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-21168-2
Pollen compatibility, pollination-window and cultivar-phenology experiments under subtropical Indian conditions.
Pitaya as a New Alternative Crop for Iberian Peninsula: Biology and Edaphoclimatic Requirements
Trindade A. R., Paiva P., Lacerda V., Marques N., Neto L., Duarte A., Pitaya as a New Alternative Crop for Iberian Peninsula: Biology and Edaphoclimatic Requirements, Plants, 2023, 12(18):3212, doi: 10.3390/plants12183212
Review of pitahaya biology and growing-environment requirements on the Iberian Peninsula.
